Завдання та навчальні тексти

до практичних занять

з англійської мови

для студентів факультету підготовки юристів

для МЗС України

(2 курс, основна мова)

2004

Завдання та навчальні тексти до практичних занять з англійської мови для студентів факультету підготовки юристів для МЗС України (2 курс, основна мова): Завдання до практичних занять / Уклад. Сорока Н.А., Романюк С.М., Щокіна Т.М., Демченко Д.І..- Х.: Нац. юрид. акад. України, 2004.- 42 с.- 2,84;

T E R M ІІІ

Topic: MEDCINE AND HEALTH

Lessons 1-14

LAWS OF GOOD HEALTH AND LONG LIFE

"Medicines are not meant to live on," an English proverb says. There is no denying the fact we can only add that good health is better than the best medicine. And if your health is good, you are always in a good mood. You have "A sound mind in a sound body," as the old Latin saying goes.

The doctor asked my friend what was the matter with him. My friend complained of a headache and sore throat. He took his temperature, and it proved to be high. Having examined my friend, the doctor found he had a bad cold, wrote out a prescription and told him to go home and stay in bed to avoid complications. My friend followed the doctor's instructions and in a week he felt much better and the doctor said he had fully recovered

Taking medicines is an unpleasant thing, of course, and if you want to avoid it, you should keep yourself fit. There is no doubt, if a person doesn't take exercises, he can easily catch an illness. Certainly the progress of science is a wonderful thing, and I want to speak about the achievements of medical science. A hundred years ago there was no medicine for diphtheria, measles, scarlet fever, whooping cough and other infectious diseases. A lot of people suffered from pain and nobody could help them. But nowadays the situation has changed and our medicine has succeeded in treating patients for contagious diseases. You can always go and see a doctor, and you are sure he will examine you and give an advice. And if you have to have an operation he will send you to a hospital where they have all the necessary equipment.

If your teeth need attention, filling or extracting, or if you need false teeth, then you go to the dentist.

If your eyes need attention, you go to the oculist, who will examine them, test your sight to see whether you are suffering from short-sight or long-sight, and will write out a prescription, which you take to an optician, who will then make the necessary glasses for you.

One of the first duties we owe to ourselves is to keep our bodies in perfect health. If our body suffers from any disorder, our mind suffers with it, and we are unable to make much progress in knowledge, and we are unfit to perform those duties which are required of us in social life.

There are certain laws of health, which deserve particular attention and they are so simple that even a child can learn them. A constant supply of pure fresh air is indispensable for good health. To secure-this, nothing impure should remain either within or near our homes and every room in the house especially the bedrooms, should be properly ventilated every day.

Perfect cleanliness is also essential. The whole body should be washed as often as possible. The skin is full of minute pores, cells, blood vessels and nerves. It "breathes" the way the lungs do. Therefore it should always be clean.

Besides its importance to health, there is a great charm in cleanliness. We like to look at one who is tidy and clean. If the skin is kept clean, the teeth thoroughly brushed, the hair neatly combed, and the finger-nails in order, we feel pleased with the person, even though his (her) clothes may be coarse and much mended.

A certain amount of exercise is necessary to keep--the body in perfect condition. All the powers (mental and bodily) we possess are strengthened by use and weakened by disuse. Therefore labour and study should succeed each other. The best way of getting exercise is to engage in some work that is useful and at the same time interesting to the mind. It is most essential for the old and the young to do morning exercises with the windows wide open in your room or, if possible, in the open air.

Remember that exercises warm, invigorate and purify the body. Rest is also necessary to the health of both body and mind. The best time for sleep is during the darkness and stillness of the night. Late hours are very harmful to the health as they exhaust the nervous system. We should go to bed early and get up early. It is a good rule to "rise with the lark and go to bed with the dark".

Most essential to our body is food. Our body is continually wasting, and requires to be repaired by fresh substance. Therefore food, which is to repair the loss, should be taken with due regard to the exercise and waste of the body. Be moderate in eating. If you eat slowly, you will not overeat. Never swallow your food wholesale – you are provided with teeth for the purpose of chewing your food – and you will never complain of indigestion. We should abstain from everything that intoxicates. The evils of intemperance, especially of alcohol, are too well known.

Intemperance excites bad passions and leads to quarrels and crimes. Alcohol costs a lot of money, which might be used for better purposes. The mind is stupefied by drink and the person who drinks will, in course of time, become unfit for his duties. Both health and character are often ruined.

Thus we must remember that moderation in eating and drinking. Reasonable hours of labour and study, regularity in exercise, recreation and rest, cleanliness and many other essentials lay the foundations for good health and long life.

Tasks: 1. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Course Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 8.

2. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Work Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 8.

3. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Grammar Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 8.

4. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Course Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 8.Word List.

5. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Student’s Casstte. – London, 2000. – Unit 8.

6. Computer Program: Learn to Speak English/Dialogues:

At the Doctor’s & At the Dentist’s.

Topic: GOING OUT

Lessons 15-30

THE BRITISH MUSEUM

The British Museum is one of the greatest and best-known museums in the world, both in the diversity of its collections and in their wide range and high quality. It was founded in 1753 by a decision of the Parliament.

The British Museum occupying a splendid great building, in the neo-classical or Grecian style, was erected between 1823 and 1847.

Of the 11 major departments into which the museum is divided, the most outstanding are the Assyrian and Babylonian, the Egyptian, and the Greek and Roman Antiquities. The last makes a particular contribution to the glory of the museum with its collection of sculptures from the Parthenon.

There are also extremely important ethnological collections, including exhibits from the Pacific islands (such as ancient Polynesian idols), and America (such as the Aztec sculptures). African civilization is also notably well represented.

There is a notable and priceless collection of medieval objects of art from all the countries of Europe. But the first thing, which is associated with the British Museum, is its Library.

The Library, which is contemporary with the museum, consisted initially of the collection of books belonging to Sir Hans Sloane. To this library were added the other collections of manuscripts and books as well as the royal library, which provided the foundations of what was to become one of the largest and most important libraries in the world.

The British Museum Library came into world prominence under its most remarkable librarian – Sir Antonio Panizzi, an Italian by birth, who had to leave his country because of revolutionary activities. Under his direction the library took on its present character. During the thirty-five years of service with the British Museum he formulated the rules and started the general catalogue.

The British Museum Library is a reading-room and a reference library, but not a lending library. The famous circular Reading Room of the Museum, planned by Sir Antonio Panizzi, offers unique research facilities to scholars.

Of many distinguished people who used the Reading Room of the British Museum was Karl Marx. When living in London, Marx was a daily visitor to the Reading Room, where he stayed from nine o'clock in the morning until closing time.

The collection of books is being systematically increased. Today there are millions of volumes in the library store-room.

AT THE THEATRE

Going to the theatre is a way of spending an evening which may be at the same time most entertaining and educative. Despite competition from the cinema, wireless and television theatre still play an important part in the entertaining of the average Englishman.

In London there are theatres for all tastes: some people prefer musical comedy, and shows of this kind, with their catchy tunes, are very popular. Variety shows, in which actors entertain the audience with sentimental and comic performance or skits on social and political life, also draw full houses and greatly influences the artistic tastes of the public. In this kind of entertainment the role of the master of ceremonies is very important. He announces the different items on the programme, introduces the actor and maintains the attention and interest of the spectators.

Those who do not care for musical comedy or variety will find other shows to their tastes. Some theatres stage modern plays: Shakespeare and other classical are played mostly at Old Vic, the Royal Opera, formerly Covent Garden, shows opera and ballet.

Seats in theatre where dramatic works of real educational value are played and where the standards of acting are high are expensive. This makes the theatrical life in Britain more or less the monopoly of the well – to – do better educated classes.

As a rule, performance start at about half past seven and run for three hours or more, including about an hour for intervals between acts. Seats are booked beforehand either at the box – office or by phone. If all the seats are not booked up you can get tickets at the box – office.The best and most expensive seats in the auditorium are the orchestra stalls the boxes, and the dress – circle. From these seats you can get view of the stage. The view is not so good from the cheaper seats – the pit and the gallery or “the gods”. Spectators are not allowed to stand in the gangway during the performance.

When you arrive at the theatre you leave your hat and coat at the cloak – room, where the attendant can also provide you with opera – glasses, if you wish. An usher shows you to your place and sells you a programme, which tells you the story of the play that is on this evening and gives the names of the actors who will act the different parts.

UKRAINIAN CINEMA

Modern Ukrainian cinema is going through a difficult period at the moment. The time of restructuring has altered the organizational and structural activity of filmmakers as well as the financial and economic situation regarding movie studios, film distribution and TV. Part of the result has been a wave of cheap commercial film, many Western or home productions and pornography, which have swept movie theatres and video parlours. It is hard for a Ukrainian spectator brought up for decades in the Puritan tradition to get accustomed to these things that had at first been accepted as a novelty and freedom of expression now annoy people and discourage them from going to the movies. This concerns especially middle-aged and old people who have already gained some knowledge of life and wish not only to be entertained but also to get something of value from films that they see. Nevertheless, despite the daily hardships and numerous problems occasioned by the economic crisis in our country, the creative search of the true movie artists continue. For instance, the film «FurtherThan the Flight of an Arrow», shot recently by producer Vasyl Viter at the Ukrtelefilm Studio, is an outstanding event in Ukrainian movie. The script was suggested by a young writer Alia Tiutiunnyk, but for a documentary film concerning the ecological problems of the Dnieper River. The plot centered on the fifty-year-old devouring of the Dnieper before the very eyes of the people who like the river, were also dying.

The film crew was so inspired by this theme that they decided to enlarge upon it. Fortunately, Alia Tiutiunnyk was completing her book on this subject, and it was decided to make feature film about the Dnieper and those generations of Ukrainians who had grown up on its banks.

Because documentary details in a feature film wouldn't be so interesting, a film-parable was created about a young man Ivan Zaporozhenko, one of the last descendents of an ancient Cossack family, which had once lived on the Dnieper.

The protagonist, a leading journalist of a provincial newspaper, is handsome and blue eyed, idealistic and romantic, but sometimes ironical and skeptical : a typical modern young man. He is writing a history of his forebears and the images of his ancestors appear continually and in the most unexpected places. The language of the film is figurative and modern. The producer has succeeded in uniting the best traditions of Ukrainian poetic movie, the brilliant proponent of which was Ivan Mykolaichuk, with European movie traditions.

Again and again the actor with his character runs into these people and listens to them carefully. The wise old man who had long ago arrived at the truth of life speaks to him from the depth of ages. But the trouble with our generation is that it invents the wheel over and over again and doesn't take into consideration the experience of our predecessors, especially as regards morals and the preservation of folk traditions.

POP MUSIC

Pop has permeated all the mass media –radio, television, cinema and the press. Yet, what is it? It obviously means more than just popular. Mozart is popular but he is certainly not pop. The Oxford Dictionary affords no assistance to those who are trying to find more or less exact definition to the word “pop”.

Music is the “art of combining sounds with a view to beauty of form and expression of emotion”. Good music, like any good art, is characterized by its lasting qualities. From this point of view, pop music may be seen as the antithesis of music.

It is easy to compare a pop record with a newspaper – a commodity to be appreciated superficially recorded as history, some pop become standards

Pop may be said to have emerged in the mid – 50s with the arrival of rock’n’roll. In the course of time rock came out of fashion, and moreover, every comedian added to his repertoire jokes about three – chord guitarists and singers in hippylike wigs yet, rock and its hybrids still from the mainstream of pop.

A long – standing criticism of pop songs is that “You can’t hear the words’ or if you can, the effort of straining your ears is unrewarded. About 99 per cent of songs are about “love” – the idealized variety – and most are not worth listening to. On the other hand those songs, which have a lot to say, are too frequently pieces of literature accompanied by guitars. Folksinger Bob Dylan provided many examples of this. He can sing poetically about death, war, class attitude and justice.

A fairly simple message conveyed with a good melody, has, I believe, been found by the Beatles and occasionally by other groups. Some of the Beatles’ old songs still enjoy popularity today.

Tasks: 1. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Course Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 11.

2. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Work Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 11.

3. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Grammar Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 11.

4. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Course Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 11.Word List.

5. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Student’s Casstte. – London, 2000. – Unit 11.

6. Computer Program: Diamon English/ Film: My Fairy

Lady.

Topic: HIGHER EDUCATION in UKRAINE, GREAT

BRITAIN and the USA

Lessons 31-48

HIGHER EDUCATION IN UKRAINE

The structure of higher education in Ukraine is build up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higher developed countries which is defined by UNESCO, UN and other international organizations.

The higher education system comprises state-owned as well as private higher educational institutions. The network includes 979 higher educational institutions of I-IV accreditation levels (vocational and technical schools, colleges, institutions, academies, universities).

For the first time hi 2000 in pursuance of the Decrees of the President of Ukraine and Resolutions of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine the system of crediting students' tuition was introduced. Decrees of the President of Ukraine "On State Assistance for Training Personnel for Rural Regions" etc. play an important social role in establishing legal framework for social protection of the young people.

Recently, Ukraine has faced a considerable increase in the number of children under 18 who study at technical and vocational schools, colleges and have limited possibilities for then-development; they need a special social care and governmental support for receiving professional education. Primarily it concerns all children - invalids, children with physical defects, ill children and those who are victims of the nuclear disaster at the Chernobyl NPP. Such children study at technical boarding schools for the disabled. The International Human Development University has been recently founded in Ukraine. The University is known for the application of new education technologies, distant learning is particular, it allows everyone to obtain a full-scale education of the I-IV levels of accreditation in 27 specialties depending on the state of health and residence of a student. The university branches are scattered all over Ukraine. Comprehensive education-scientific-rehabilitation complexes (from kindergartens to master courses) have been established. Besides technical schools and colleges of Ukraine provide special training courses for the disabled allowing them to obtain the qualification of a junior specialists.

A mportant task of the system of education of Ukraine is the realization of the concept of lifetime learning. The labour market changes quickly, that dictates the necessity to elaborate short-term teaching program for retraining qualification improvement of personnel. The system of post-graduate education must perform this important function.

Today positive changes are taking place in the formation of a complex system of post-graduate education as a constituent of national education. There function over 500 state-owned and non-governmental educational establishments and their subdivisions, with about 200 higher educational establishments of post-graduate education directly subordinated to the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. At the same time 23 ministries and administrations have their own network of educational institutions, the most important of them being agrarian, industrial and transport institutes. Annually the post-graduate system of education trams 300 thousand specialists of whom 30 thousand get a higher education of different educational and qualification level in 58 specialties.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE USA

Today’s topic is Higher Education in the United States. We’re going to talk about the various forms of higher education, including colleges and universities, public and private institutions. We’ll also be talking about what some criteria might be when you chose the college or university for you to attend.

First of all, I’d like to talk just in general about some of the terminology. We talk about “colleges” and “universities” interchangeably. We might talk about going to college when we actually going to university. That’s because they are about the same for us. Well, in California, we have a very specific kind of educational system. We are going to talk about that. What basically, the difference, between a college and a university, is the kind of degree that they grate. In a college, you can have a choice of going to a two-year college and earning an Associate of Arts Degree, or going to a four-year college and earning a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science Degree. That is different from a university. The University can also offer the advanced levels degrees: the Master of Arts and Master of Science and also the Ph.D. Some Universities offer the Ph.D., which is the Doctor of Philosophy Degree, the highest degree that you can earn in the United States. So that’s basically the difference between a college and a university.

Now, another distinction that we should talk about is the public and private colleges and universities. Private colleges are very good. Some of them are excellent. You probably have heard about few of the famous colleges that are private like Harvard, Princeton, and Stanford. You heard about those colleges. I think they are known throughout the world as being excellent schools. One thing about a private school is that it is generally quite expensive, and many of those schools, of course, are very difficult to get into.

Public Schools. There are also excellent public schools. Such as the University of California, of Burkly, the University of Michigan, and U.C.L.A. These are all excellent public schools, just to name a few. Public schools are different from private schools in the way a state taxed payers. The residents in the state pay taxes to the state government and parts of those taxes are portioned to education from the primary level to the University level. So the institutions that are public are supported not only by students’ tuition, but also by the taxes. That makes them less expensive than private schools because private schools are only supported by the students’ tuition. So they have to be more expensive.

Now, these excellent schools that we’ve mentioned are also very competitive. It is difficult to get into them. So you have to think about how to apply and what school to apply to. Now, each state has its own system, education system, as determined by the State government, the state legislature. The state determines the goals for the education in that state and what this state system is going to look like.

The California educational system. You can draw a California State educational system pyramid. It graphically describes and shows you how this system is laid up in California.

To begin with, at the bottom of this pyramid, the largest basic part of it is the community college system. Again, this is the two-year system in California. You can attend full-time for two years and you can earn an Associate of Arts Degree. It is not difficult to get into the community college system. You have to have a high school diploma and you have to have approximately 450 in a TOEFL in order to be admitted. There are 106 community colleges throughout the state of California, which broaden the access to education. This makes education democratic in the State of California. Anybody who meets these minimal requirements has access to the educational system there. California State University can offer you a Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts, Master of Science and Master of Arts. So they offer both of graduate study and undergraduate study up to the Master’s level.

There are 20 California State University campuses from San Diego to San Francisco and Aumbold ever north of San Francisco. In fact, I think, It is the largest University system in the United States. There are 20 different campuses to which you can apply. The entrance requirements are little bit more competitive than in the community college. They accept the upper 30 %. You have to have 500 or more commonly 550 T.O.E.F.L. in score. You have to have a pretty good G.P.A., or grade point average, to be accepted in a California University system.

The third level in the Pyramid is the University of California system. In the University of California you can obtain a Bachelor of Science, a Bachelor of Arts, Master of Science, Master of Arts and the Highest Degree, which of course, we have mentioned as the Ph.D., the Doctor of Philosophy. She University of California has ten different campuses ranging from San Diego to San Francisco. In a University of California, to get a Ph.D. you must do a lot of research. They have a lot of research facilities. This University is difficult to get into. The T.O.E.F.L. score requirements may be around 6 hundred. People with 4.0 Grade Point average are sometimes turned away. So it’s very, very competitive, very difficult to get into. You may ask, well, if the students with 4.0 Grade Point Average are turned away what do they have to do? Well, when the admission Officers are considering the applicants, they can look of … different people with 4.0s and see whether they have any additional personal values, perhaps, someone plays in the band, or he has been an editor of the students’ newspaper, or he has done some service in the community and this person has more of a well rounded kind of personality profile. They may choose this person over the person who has only studied in the library for last … years.

So, in effect, you have access to the California system through the community college. You can get the degree that you want to as long as you meet the requirements. Now, when you’re thinking about choosing a college or university that would be the best for you, there are some criteria that you should keep in mind. First of all, what is your major. Every college or University offers all of the majors. So you need to find what majors are offered in the colleges and universities that you are interested in. Perhaps, your major is marine biology. That’s a little bit unusual. Not all schools have that. But there are a few schools in California that really do. You need to do some research, and find out who offers your major.

Also, how about the faculty.

Are they good? Are they well known in that field? Have they published anything? Are they making contributions to the field that you are interested in studying? What is the reputation of the school?

Another important consideration is “is the institution accredited”? That means, does it have the stamp of approval by a board of experts that are called accreditation board. This group of experts visits all the institutions and they evaluate them. They look at their libraries, they look at the students, they talk to the students, the faculty, and the administration. They look through the whole campus and all the services that students are provided with and then they decide: this is a good school.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN

There are no important official or legal distinctions between the various types of university in the country. But it is possible to discern a few broad categories.

Oxbridge. This name denotes the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, both founded in the medieval period. They are federations of semi-independent colleges, each college having its own staff, known as 'Fellows'. Most colleges have their own dining hall, library and chapel and contain enough accommodation for at least half of their students. The Fellows teach the college students, either one-to-one or in very small groups (known as 'tutorials' in Oxford and 'supervisions' in Cambridge) Oxbridge has the lowest student/staff ratio in Britain. Lectures and laboratory work are organized at university level. As well as the college libraries, there are the two university libraries, both of which are legally entitled to a free copy of every book published in Britain. Before 1970 all Oxbridge colleges were single-sex (mostly for men). Now, the majority admit both sexes.

The old Scottish universities. By 1600 Scotland boasted four universities. They were Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and St Andrews. The last of these resembles Oxbridge in many ways, while the other three are more like civic universities (see below) in that most of the students live at home or find their own rooms in town. At all of them the pattern of study is closer to the continental tradition than to the English one - there is less specialization than at Oxbridge.

The early nineteenth-century English universities. Durham University was founded in 1832. Its collegiate living arrangements are similar to Oxbridge, but academic matters are organized at university level. The University of London started in 1836 with just two colleges. Many more have joined since, scattered widely around the city, so that each college (most are non-residential) is almost a separate university. The central organization is responsible for little more than exams and the awarding of degrees.

The older civic ('redbrick') universities. During the nineteenth century various institutes of higher education, usually with a technical bias, sprang up in the new industrial towns and cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds. Their buildings were of local material, often brick, in contrast to the stone of older universities (hence the name, 'redbrick'). They catered only for local people. At first, they prepared students for London University degrees, but later they were given the right to award their own degrees, and so became universities themselves. In the mid- twentieth century they started to accept students from all over the country.

The campus universities. These are purpose-built institutions located in the countryside but close to towns. Examples are East Anglia, Lancaster, Sussex and Warwick. They have accommodation for most of their students on site and from their beginning, mostly in the early 1960s, attracted students from all over the country. (Many were known as centres of student protest in the late 1960s and early 1970s.) They tend to emphasize relatively 'new' academic disciplines such as social sciences and to make greater use than other universities of teaching in small groups, often known as 'seminars'.

EXAMS AND QUALIFICATIONS

GCSE = General Certificate of Secondary Education. The exams taken by most fifteen- to sixteen-year-olds in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Marks are given for each subject separately. The syllabuses and methods of examination of the various examining boards differ. However, there is a uniform system of marks, all being graded from A to G. Grades A, B and C are regarded as 'good' grades.

SCE = Scottish Certificate of Education. The Scottish equivalent of GCSE. These exams are set by the Scottish Examinations Board. Grades are awarded in numbers (i = the best).

A Levels = Advanced Levels. Higher-level academic exams set by the same examining boards that set GCSE exams. They are taken mostly by people around the age of eighteen who wish to go on to higher education.

SCE 'Highers' = The Scottish equivalent of A-levels.

GNVQ = General National Vocational Qualification. Courses and exams in job-related subjects. They are divided into five levels, the lowest level being equivalent to GCSEs/SCEs and the third level to A-levels/'Highers'. Most commonly, GNVQ courses are studied at Colleges of Further Education, but more and more schools are also offering them.

Degree: A qualification from a university. (Other qualifications obtained after secondary education are usually called 'certificate' or 'diploma'). Students studying for a first degree are called undergraduates. When they have been awarded a degree, they are known as graduates. Most people get honours degrees, awarded in different classes. These are: Class I (known as 'a first')

Class II,I ('a 2,1' or 'an upper second')

Class 11,11 ('a 2,2' or 'a lower second')

Class III ('a third')

A student who is below one of these gets a pass degree (i.e. not an honours degree).

Bachelor's Degree: The general name for a first degree, most commonly a BA ( = Bachelor of Arts) or BSc (= Bachelor of Science).

Master's Degree: The general name for a second (postgraduate) degree, most commonly an MA or MSc. At Scottish universities, however, these titles are used for first degrees.

Doctorate: The highest academic qualification. This usually (but not everywhere) carries the title PhD (= Doctor of Philosophy). The time taken to complete a doctorate varies, but it is generally expected to involve three years of more-or-less full-time study.

COLLEGE LIFE

The merry-go-round of college life is something that one never forgets. It’s a fascinating, fantastic, fabulous experience, irrespective of the fact whether one is a full-time or a part-time student.

Who can forget the first day at the university when one turns from an applicant who has passed entrance exams into a first-year student? I did it! I entered, I got in to the university! A solemn ceremony in front of the university building and serious people making speeches. Hey, lad, do you happen to know who they are? Who? The rector, vice-rectors, deans, subdeans… and what about those ladies? Heads of departments and senior lecturers? Okay. Some of them must be professors, some – associate or assistant professors, but, of course all of them have high academic degrees. And where are the lecturers and tutors? Oh, how nice…

The monitors hand out student membership cards, student record books and library cards – one feels like a real person. First celebrations and then days of hard work. So many classes, so many new subjects to put on the timetable! The curriculum seems to be developed especially for geniuses. Lectures, seminars and tutorials. Home preparations; a real avalanche of homeworks.

If one can not cope with the work load of college he or she immediately starts lagging behind. It is easier to keep pace with the programme than to catch up with it later. Everyone tries hard to be, or at least to look, diligent. First tests and examination sessions. The first successes and first failures: “I have passed!” or “He has not given me a pass!” Tears and smiles. And a long-awaited vacation.

The merry-go-round runs faster. Assignments, written reproductions, compositions, synopses, papers. Translations checked up and marked. “Professor, I have never played truant, I had a good excuse for missing classes”. Works handed in and handed out. Reading up for exams. “No, professor, I have never cheated – no cribs. I just crammed”.

Junior students become senior. Still all of them are one family – undergraduates. Students’ parties and students’ club. Meeting people and parting with people. You know, Nora is going to be expelled and Dora is going to graduate with honours. Yearly essays, graduation dissertations, finals…

What? A teacher’s certificate? You mean, I’ve got a degree in English? I am happy! It is over! It is over… Is it over? Oh, no…

A postgraduate course, a thesis, an oral, and a degree in Philology. The first of September. Where are the students of Faculty of Foreign Languages? Is it the English department? Oh, how nice…

Tasks: 1. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Course Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 10.

2. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Work Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 10.

3. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Grammar Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 10.

4. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Course Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 10.Word List.

5. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Student’s Casstte. – London, 2000. – Unit 10.

T E R M ІV

Topic: UKRAINE, GREAT BRITAIN & the USA:

GEOGRAPHY, POLITICAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL LIFE

Lessons 1-26

UKRAINE

The country is located in Eastern Europe, after Russia the second largest on the continent. It is bordered by Belarus on the north, Russia on the east, the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea on the south, Moldova and Romania on the southwest, and Hungary, Slovakia, and Poland on the west; in the far southeast, Ukraine is separated from Russia by the Kerch Strait, which connects the Sea of Azov to the Black Sea. Ukraine has an area of 233,100 square miles (603,700 square kilometres). The capital is Kiev (Kyyiv), located on the Dnieper River in north-central Ukraine.

An independent Ukraine emerged only late in the 20th century, after long periods of successive domination by Poland-Lithuania, Russia, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. From 1922 to 1991 Ukraine formed part of the latter under the name Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. With the unraveling of the Soviet Union in 1990-91, however, the Ukrainian S.S.R.'s legislature declared sovereignty (July 16, 1990) and then declared outright independence (Aug. 24, 1991), a move that was confirmed by popular approval in a plebiscite soon afterward. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself in December 1991, Ukraine gained full independence. The country changed its official name to Ukraine, and it helped found the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

The population of Ukraine is only slightly smaller than that of such western European countries as France, Italy, or the United Kingdom, but it is only one-third that of neighbouring Russia. When Ukraine was part of the Soviet Union, a policy of Russian in-migration and Ukrainian out-migration was in effect, and ethnic Ukrainians' share of the population in Ukraine declined from 77 percent in 1959 to 73 percent in 1991. The 1991 Soviet census also revealed Russians to be the largest minority, at 22 percent. The remaining minorities, in 1991 making up about 5 percent of the population, include Jews, Belarusians, Moldovans, Bulgarians, Poles, Hungarians, and Romanians. The Crimean Tatars, who were forcibly deported to Uzbekistan and other Central Asian republics in 1944, began returning to the Crimea in large numbers in 1989 and now number about 250,000.

The predominant religion in Ukraine is Eastern Orthodoxy, although in western Ukraine the Ukrainian Catholic faith prevails.

During the Soviet period, Russian was the required language of government administration and public life. In 1991 Ukrainian once again became the official language, though in the Crimea, where there is a Russian-speaking majority, Russian is the official language. In addition, primary and secondary schools using Russian as the language of instruction still prevail in the Donets Basin and other areas with large Russian minorities. Ukrainian - belonging to the East Slavic language family that also includes Russian and Belarusian – uses a form of the Cyrillic alphabet. It is closely related to Russian, and the two languages are mutually intelligible. Significant minorities speak Romanian, Polish, Belarusian, Bulgarian, or Hungarian.

Ukraine's modern economy was developed as an integral part of the larger economy of the Soviet Union. Yet, while receiving a smaller share (16 percent in the 1980s) of the Soviet Union's investment funds and producing a greater proportion of goods with a lower set price, Ukraine was still able to produce a larger share of total output in the industrial (17 percent) and especially the agricultural (21 percent) sectors of the Soviet economy. In effect, a centrally directed transfer of wealth from Ukraine amounting to one-fifth of its national income helped finance economic development in other parts of the Soviet Union, notably Russia and Kazakstan.

The collapse of the Soviet economy in 1990-91 and a subsequent period of extreme currency inflation in Ukraine brought great hardship to most of the population. Despite early hopes that Ukrainian economic independence, with the concomitant end to the transfer of funds and resources to other parts of the Soviet Union, would alleviate the declining economy and standard of living, Ukraine entered a period of severe economic decline.

Daily life in Ukraine became a struggle, particularly for those living on fixed incomes, as prices rose sharply. Citizens have compensated in a number of ways: more than half grow their own food, workers often hold two or three jobs, and many acquire basic necessities through a flourishing barter economy. Extractive and industrial processes are concentrated in the Donets Basin (commonly called Donbas) and along the Dnieper River. In the far west, mining takes place in the Lviv-Volyn coal basin north of Lviv and in Subcarpathia, south of Lviv and northeast of the Carpathian Mountains.

The government of Ukraine underwent rapid change in the early 1990s. Before its declaration of independence in 1991, Ukraine was officially called the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and was part of the Soviet Union. According to the 1937 Soviet constitution as amended in 1944, Ukraine had the right to "enter into direct relations with foreign states, to conclude agreements, and to exchange diplomatic and consular representatives with them" and to maintain its own military forces. The only real expression of these constitutional prerogatives in international affairs, however, was Ukraine's charter membership in the United Nations (and consequently in some 70 other international organizations), a distinction it shared with the Belorussian S.S.R. (now Belarus) as the only two UN members that were not fully sovereign countries.

The revised Soviet constitution of 1977 further limited the prerogatives of the Ukrainian S.S.R. Following the failed coup (Aug. 19, 1991) against the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, Ukraine proclaimed its independence on Aug. 24, 1991, and won overwhelming popular approval for this act in a referendum on Dec. 1, 1991. Ukraine was subsequently recognized by other governments, and many international agreements were signed, notably with neighbouring countries.

In addition, Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia formed the Commonwealth of Independent States on Dec. 8, 1991, which was then joined by eight other former republics of the defunct Soviet Union. The Commonwealth's members agreed to retain the strategic nuclear forces of the former Soviet Union under a unified command, and in 1994 the Ukrainian government agreed to begin dismantling the strategic nuclear missiles that were based on its territory. The Ukrainian government insisted, however, on the creation of Ukrainian armed forces out of the Soviet troops stationed in Ukraine. Ukraine also intended to conduct its own fiscal policy and to that end established a national bank.

President is the head of the state. He is also Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The Supreme Council (Verhovna Rada, Parliament) is the highest legislative body in the country. It sets up the Government – the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. The Cabinet of Ministers is the highest executive and administrative organ of the state. Regional, district, city, town and village councils are the local bodies of power. The highest organ of judicial power is the Supreme Court.

GREAT BRITAIN

United Kingdom is located on the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. It consists of four geographic and historical parts – England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom makes up most of the British Isles - the geographic term for the group of islands that also includes the republic of Ireland. Together, England, Wales, and Scotland constitute the larger of the two principal islands, while Northern Ireland and the republic of Ireland constitute the second largest. To the southwest of England are the Isles of Scilly, and to the south is the Isle of Wight. The Orkney and Shetland islands lie to the north of Scotland, and the Hebrides lie to the west. Off northwestern Wales is the island of Anglesey.

Apart from the land border with the Irish republic, the United Kingdom is surrounded by sea. To the south of England, and between the United Kingdom and France, is the English Channel. The North Sea lies to the east. To the west of Wales and northern England is the Irish Sea, while western Scotland and the northwestern coast of Northern Ireland face the Atlantic Ocean.

The area of the United Kingdom is 94,251 square miles (244,110 square kilometres). At its widest the United Kingdom is 300 miles across. From the top of Scotland to the southern coast of England it is about 600 miles. No part is more than 75 miles from the sea.

The national capital is London, situated on the River Thames in the southeastern corner of England. The names United Kingdom, Great Britain, and England are often confused, even by U.K. inhabitants.

Great Britain, the island comprising England, Scotland, and Wales, forms, together with numerous smaller islands, an archipelago that is as irregular in shape as it is diverse in its natural heritage. This latter circumstance stems largely from the nature and disposition of the underlying rocks, which are westward extensions of European structures, with the shallow waters of the Strait of Dover and the North Sea concealing former land links. Northern Ireland – which politically completes the United Kingdom – is a westward extension of the rock structures of Scotland. These common rock structures are breached by the narrow North Channel. On a global scale, this natural endowment covers a small area – approximating that of Oregon, in the United States, or the African nation of Guinea – and its internal diversity, accompanied by rapid changes of often beautiful scenery, may perhaps convey to visitors from larger countries a striking sense of compactness and consolidation. The peoples who, over the centuries, have made their way to, and hewed an existence from, this Atlantic extremity of Eurasia have put their own imprint on the environment, with the ancient and distinctive palimpsest of their field patterns and settlements complementing the natural diversity.

Great Britain comprises England, Wales, and Scotland, while the United Kingdom also includes Northern Ireland (although the name Britain is sometimes used to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole). Wales and England were unified politically, administratively, and legally by the acts of union of 1536 and 1542. In 1707 Scotland joined England and Wales in forming a single parliament for Great Britain, although the three countries had previously shared a monarch.

The United Kingdom is characterized by a long history and by political and cultural links with other areas of the world, the latter mostly a legacy of its large former empire. In modern times the United Kingdom is perhaps best seen as a middle-sized, middle-ranking industrial country. The political system of the United Kingdom has provided stability and consistency since the 19th century, albeit through a structure that has evolved rather than been designed. It is a unitary system centred on London, with some responsibilities devolved to local governments.

The national government is a parliamentary democracy dominated by the monarchy, which links the executive, legislature, judiciary, armed forces, and Church of England. Although in practice almost all responsibilities are deferred, the monarch and the royal family are a source of unity and national spirit. In Parliament the House of Lords still consists mainly of hereditary or appointed peers, while members of the House of Commons are elected by a simple "first-past-the-post" system.

This stability of institutions contrasts with and complements the striking heterogeneous social character of the United Kingdom. There is a vocal nationalist spirit in both Wales and Scotland, while Northern Ireland is plagued by division between the Protestant and Roman Catholic communities. Northern Ireland's troubles have led to terrorist actions, most notably by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA).

On the world stage, the United Kingdom is part of the European Union, while retaining links with parts of its former empire through the Commonwealth. It also benefits from historical and cultural links with the United States and is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This diversity of interests, together with a network of international relations, means that the United Kingdom is not easily identified as belonging to a specific geographic block among the Western industrialized nations.

Economically the United Kingdom has benefited since the 1970s from production of oil from deposits in the North Sea. London has remained a leading world financial centre, the time zone allowing it to bridge the gap between trading in Tokyo and New York City. The United Kingdom's traditional strength in manufacturing, however, has been eroded, with employment in manufacturing falling in absolute terms. This has undoubtedly contributed to the stark differences in the social and economic composition of the industrialized north and the more service-oriented, prosperous south, creating a north-south divide.

Socially the United Kingdom suffers pockets of poverty, with some inner-city areas among the worst in Europe. The growth in ethnic minorities from former colonies has enriched the nation's cultural fabric but added to social tensions, occasionally fueling violence. In contrast, home ownership is widespread and, while the state supports an educational system, public schools – which despite their title are part of the private sector – thrive. With some exceptions, notably curbs on public servants, freedom of expression is not restricted, and the United Kingdom is renowned for the strength of its arts.

For centuries people have been going to the British Isles from many parts of the world, some to avoid political or religious persecution, others to find a better way of life or to escape from poverty. The Irish have long made homes in Britain, as have Jews, many of the latter arriving toward the end of the 19th century and in the 1930s. After 1945 large numbers of other European refugees settled in the country. The large communities from the West Indies and South Asian subcontinent date from the 1950s and '60s. There are also sizable groups of Americans, Australians, and Chinese, as well as various other Europeans, such as Greeks, Russians, Poles, Serbs, Estonians, Latvians, Armenians, Turkish Cypriots, Italians, and Spaniards. Since the early 1970s, Ugandan Asians and immigrants from Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka have sought refuge in Britain. Persons of Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi origin account for more than one-half of the total ethnic minority. The foreign-born element of the population is disproportionately concentrated in inner-city areas, particularly in the South East.

The United Kingdom has a fiercely independent, developed, and international trading economy that was at the forefront of the 19th-century Industrial Revolution. The country emerged from World War II as a military victor but with a debilitated manufacturing industry. Postwar recovery was relatively slow, and it took nearly 40 years, with additional stimulation from joining the European Economic Community (now the European Community) in 1973, for the U.K. economy to improve its competitiveness significantly.

The United Kingdom now ranks among the top industrial countries in growth rates, productivity, and competitiveness. The share of manufacturing's contribution to gross domestic product has declined to about one-fourth of the total, with services providing the source of greatest growth. The United States is a major influence and trading partner, and Japan has become a significant investor in local production, Japanese companies often choosing the United Kingdom as their European base. In addition, other fast-developing East Asian countries with export-oriented economies include the United Kingdom's open market among their important outlets. The United Kingdom's trading pattern has thus switched from being dominantly Commonwealth-linked to one in which just over half its visible trade is with the European Union (within which the European Community is subsumed).

The 1980s, during which the Conservative Party governed, saw an acceleration of privatization, or denationalization, of publicly owned corporations that had been nationalized by previous governments. There also was an improvement in the standard of living, though there was, in general, greater prosperity in the South East, which includes London, than in the more northerly and westerly regions. Unemployment and inflation rates were gradually reduced but remained high.

The country's role as a major world financial centre and its discovery of natural gas in 1965 and oil in 1969 in the North Sea and their commercial exploitation (beginning in 1967 and 1975, respectively) reduced the dependence on more traditional sources of energy and were major influences on the health of the internal economy and on national economic policies. Prevailing government policies include the close monitoring and frequent adjustment of interest rates; a gradual reduction in the level of direct personal taxation; in favour of local bargaining, a reduction in the levels of power and influence of national trade unions in national labour negotiations; the encouragement of wider home ownership and of individuals' share holdings in companies; and the recognition of the need for increased provision of training, both for those entering employment for the first time and for those seeking to change the course of their work.

Considerable emphasis is placed on improvement in productivity and competitiveness and on increased exposure of the economy to market forces. Just under half of the total population is in the labour force. Within this group are small numbers of self-employed workers, as well as members of the armed forces and of work-related government training programs. The highest proportion of employees (more than two-thirds) are in the service sectors, with financial services and distribution the largest. Manufacturing, although it has declined, employs more than one-fifth of all workers. Smaller numbers are in construction, energy, agriculture, forestry, and fishing. The number of part-time workers has increased considerably.

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Officially the United States of America is a federal republic of 50 states. Besides the 48 contiguous states that occupy the middle latitudes of the continent, the United States includes the state of Alaska, at the northwestern extreme of North America, and the island state of Hawaii, in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The coterminous states are bounded on the north by Canada, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The national capital is Washington, which is coextensive with the District of Columbia, the federal capital region created in 1790.

The total area of the United States is 3,679,192 square miles (9,529,063 square kilometres), making it the fourth largest country in the world in area (after Russia, Canada, and China). Outlying territories and other politically associated areas in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea add approximately 4,000 square miles to this figure.

The major characteristic of the United States is probably its great variety. Its physical environment ranges from the Arctic to the subtropical, from the moist rain forest to the arid desert, from the rugged mountain peak to the flat prairie. Although the total population of the United States is large by world standards, its overall population density is relatively low. The country embraces some of the world's largest urban concentrations as well as some of the most extensive areas that are almost devoid of habitation.

The United States contains a highly diverse population; but, unlike a country such as China that largely incorporated indigenous peoples, its diversity has to a great degree come from an immense and sustained global immigration. Probably no other country has a wider range of racial, ethnic, and cultural types than does the United States. In addition to the presence of surviving native Americans (including American Indians, Aleuts, and Eskimo) and the descendants of Africans taken as slaves to America, the national character has been enriched, tested, and constantly redefined by the tens of millions of immigrants who have gone to America hoping for greater social, political, and economic opportunities than they had in the places they left.

The United States is the world's greatest economic power, measured in terms of gross national product (GNP). The nation's wealth is partly a reflection of its rich natural resources and its enormous agricultural output, but it owes more to the country's highly developed industry. Despite its relative economic self-sufficiency in many areas, the United States is the most important single factor in world trade by virtue of the sheer size of its economy. Its exports and imports represent major proportions of the world total. The United States also impinges on the global economy as a source of and as a destination for investment capital. The country continues to sustain an economic life that is more diversified than any other on Earth, providing the majority of its people with one of the world's highest standards of living.

The United States is relatively young by world standards, being barely more than 200 years old; it achieved its current size only in the mid-20th century. America was the first of the European colonies to separate successfully from its motherland, and it was the first nation to be established on the premise that sovereignty rests with its citizens and not with the government. In its first century and a half, the country was mainly preoccupied with its own territorial expansion and economic growth and with social debates that ultimately led to civil war and a healing period that is still not complete. In the 20th century the United States emerged as a world power, and since World War II it has been one of the preeminent powers. It has not accepted this mantle easily nor always carried it willingly; the principles and ideals of its founders have been tested by the pressures and exigencies of its dominant status. Although the United States still offers its residents opportunities for unparalleled personal advancement and wealth, the depletion of its resources, contamination of its environment, and continuing social and economic inequality that perpetuates areas of poverty and blight all threaten the fabric of the country.

As the 20th century drew to a close, the majority of the U.S. population had achieved a high level of material comfort, prosperity, and security. Americans were not, however, prepared to cope with the unexpected problems of relative affluence or with the persistent difficulties created by residual pockets of poverty. Crime, racial conflict, urban decay, proliferation of nuclear weapons, pollution of the environment, drug abuse, and rising costs of living remained continuing subjects of concern. Many Americans perceive social tensions as the products of their society's failure to extend the traditional dream of equality of opportunity to all the people. Ideally, social, political, economic, and religious freedom would assure the like treatment of all persons, so that all could achieve goals in accord with their individual talents, if only they worked hard enough. A shared belief in this idea is the strongest bond that has united Americans through the centuries. The fact that some ethnic groups have not achieved full equality troubles many citizens.

The United States is the world's greatest economic power in terms of gross national product (GNP) and is among the greatest powers in terms of GNP per capita. The nation's wealth is partly a reflection of its rich natural resources. With only 5 percent of the world's population, the United States produces nearly one-fifth of the world's output of coal, copper, and crude petroleum. The agricultural sector produces nearly one-half of the world's corn (maize); nearly one-fifth of its beef, pork, mutton, and lamb; and more than one-tenth of its wheat. The United States owes its economic position more to its highly developed industry, however, than to its natural resources or agricultural output.

Despite its relative self-sufficiency, the United States is the most important single factor in world trade by virtue of the sheer size of its economy. Its exports represent more than 10 percent of the world total. The United States impinges on the economy of the rest of the world not only as a trading power but also as a source of investment capital. Direct investment abroad by U.S. firms is a dominant factor in the economies of Canada and many Latin-American countries and is also important in Europe and in Asia.

The U.S. Constitution defines a federal system of government in which certain powers are delegated to the national government; other powers fall to the states. The national government consists of executive, legislative, and judicial branches that are designed to check and balance one another; all are interrelated and overlapping yet each is quite distinct.Since the Constitution was ratified in 1788, there have been 26 amendments to it. The first 10, known as the Bill of Rights, established a number of individual liberties. Notable among the other amendments are the 13th, 14th, and 15th, which abolished slavery and declared former slaves citizens with the right to vote; the 17th, which provided for the direct election of U.S. senators; and the 19th, which effected women's suffrage. Amending the Constitution requires a proposal by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress or by a national convention, followed by ratification by three-fourths of the state legislatures or state conventions.

Tasks: Riley A. Law Book: Professional English. – London, 1999. –

Introductory Unit, Unit 1, Unit 2.

Topic: MASS MEDIA: UKRAINE, GREAT BRITAIN

and the USA

Lessons 27-35

PRESS IN GREAT BRITAIN

In every modern country, regardless of form of government, the press, radio and television are political weapons of tremendous power, and few things are so indicative of the nature of a government as the way in which that power is exercised. In studying the politics of any country, it is important not only to understand the nature of the social, economic, political and other divisions of the population but also to discover what organs of public and political opinion are available for the expression of the various interests.

Although the press in this or that country is legally free, the danger lies in the fact that the majority of people are not aware of the ownership. The press in fact is controlled by a comparatively small number of persons. Consequently, when the readers see different newspapers providing the same news and expressing similar opinions they are not sure that the news, and the evaluation of the news, are determined by a single group of people, perhaps mainly by one man. In democratic countries it has long been assumed that governments ought, in general, to do what their people want them to do.

In a democratic country like Great Britain the press, ideally, has three political functions: information, discussion and representation. It is supposed to give the voter reliable and complete information on which to base his judgment, it should let him know the arguments for and against any policy, and it should reflect and give voice to the desires of the people as a whole.

Quite a number of daily newspapers, national and regional, are sold per person in Britain. There are over 120 daily (Monday to Saturday) and Sunday newspapers and about 1,000 weekly newspapers. These figures include certain specialized papers with circulations limited not by region but by interest; for instance business, sporting and religious newspapers, and newspapers in foreign languages.

The press serves a variety of political views, interests and levels of education. Naturally, there is no censorship in Great Britain, but in 1953 the Press Council was set up. It is not an official body but it is composed of people nominated by journalists, and it receives complaints against particular newspapers. It may make reports, which criticize papers, but its reports have no direct effect.

There is no state control of the press, but it is subject to the general laws of publication. Newspapers are almost always financially independent of any political party and are not obliged to follow any specific line. Where they express pronounced views and have obvious political leanings these arise from traditional, proprietorial and other non-party influences.

The British press means, primarily, a group of daily and Sunday newspapers published in London. They are most important and known as national in the sense of circulating throughout the British Isles. All the national newspapers have their central offices in London, but those with big circulations also print the "Daily Express". Ownership of the national, London evening and regional daily newspapers is concentrated in the hands of a number of large press publishing groups, such as "Fleet Holding", "Associated Newspaper Group", "News International", and others. Ten morning daily papers and eight Sunday papers circulate throughout the country, and are known as national newspapers. Most of them are produced in London. National newspapers are often thought of as either "quality" or "popular" papers on the basis of differences in style, content and format: broadsheet or tabloid.

The popular newspapers tend to make news sensational. They publish "personal" articles, which shock and excite. Instead of printing factual news reports, these papers write them up in an exciting way, easy to read, playing on people's emotions. They avoid serious political and social questions or treat them superficially. Trivial events are treated as the most interesting and important happenings. Crime is always given far more space than creative, productive or cultural achievements. Much of their information concerns the private lives of people who are in the news. The popular newspapers are very similar to one another in appearance and general arrangement, with big headlines and the main news on the front page.

But the best known among the British national quality newspapers are as follows:"The Times" (1785) is called the paper of the Establishment. Politically it is independent, but is generally inclined to be sympathetic to the Conservative party. It is not a governmental organ, though very often its leading articles may be written after private consultation with people in the Government. It has a reputation for extreme caution, though it has always been a symbol of solidity in Britain. Its reporting is noted for reliability and completeness and especially in foreign affairs. Its reputation for reflecting or even anticipating government policy gives it an almost official tone.

"The Guardian" (until 1959 – "Manchester Guardian") has become a truly national paper rather than one specially connected with Manchester. In quality, style and reporting it is nearly equal with "The Times". In politics it is described as "radical". It was favorable to the Liberal party and tends to be rather closer in sympathy to the Labor party than to the Conservatives. It has made great progress during the past years, particularly among intelligent people who find "The Times" too uncritical of the Establishment.

"The Daily Telegraph" (1855) is the quality paper with the largest circulation (1.5 million compared with "The Times'" 471 thousand and "The Guardian's" 524 thousand). In theory it is independent, but in practice it is an orthodox Conservative paper and as such caters for the educated and semi-educated business and professional classes. Being well produced and edited it is full of various information and belongs to the same class of journalism as "The Times" and "The Guardian".

"The Daily Mirror" (3.1 million) is the popular newspaper, which supports the Labor Party.

The daily papers have no Sunday editions, but there are Sunday papers, nearly all of which are national: "The Sunday Times" (1822, 1.2 million), "Sunday Telegraph" (1961, 0.7 million), the "Sunday Express" (1918,2.2 million), the "Sunday Mirror" (1963,2.7 million).

On weekdays there are evening papers, all of which serve their own regions only, and give the latest news. London has two evening newspapers, the "London Standard" and the "Evening News".

In addition to the daily and Sunday papers, there is an enormous number of weeklies, some devoted to specialized and professional subjects, others of more general interest. Three of them are of special importance and enjoy a large and influential readership. They are the "Spectator" (which is non-party but with Conservative views), the "New Statesman" (a radical journal, inclining towards the left wing of the Labour Party) and the largest and most influential – the "Economist" (politically independent). These periodicals resemble one another in subject matter and layout. They contain articles on national and international affairs, current events, the arts, letters to the Editor, extensive book reviews. Their publications often exert a great influence on politics.

The regional newspapers of England (outside London, over 95 morning or evening dailies and Sundays and some 950 newspapers appearing once or twice a week) provide mainly regional and local news. The daily newspapers also give coverage of national and international affairs. Generally, regional evening newspapers are non-political, while the morning newspapers adopt a more political stand. The four most famous provincial newspapers are "The Scotsman" (Edinburgh), the "Glasgow Herald", the "Yorkshire Post" (Leeds) and the "Belfast Telegraph", which present national as well as local news. Apart from these there are many other daily, evening and weekly papers published in cities and smaller towns. They present local news and are supported by local advertisements.

The 5,000 periodical publications are classified as "general", "specialized", "technical" and "professional". They include magazines of general interest; women's magazines; publications for children; pop music journals; religious periodicals; fiction magazines; magazines dealing with sport, gardening, hobbies and humor; computer magazines; journals specializing in a wide range of subjects; and the publications of trade unions, universities and other organizations. Traditionally the leading humorous periodical in Britain is "Punch", best known for its cartoons and articles, which deserve to be regarded as typical examples of English humor. It has in recent years devoted increasing attention to public affairs, often by means of its famous cartoons.

These laws relate to such matters as the extent of newspaper ownership in television and radio companies; restrictions on reporting of certain types of court-proceedings, copyrights and some others.

Literary and political journals are those specializing in international affairs, published monthly or quarterly; generally appeal to the more serious reader.

The three principal news agencies in Britain are: Reuters Ltd., an international news organization registered in London, the Press Association Ltd. and The Exchange Telegraph Company Ltd. Reuters, for example, employs some 3,300 full-time staff in 70 countries and has links with about 120 national or private news agencies. The oldest one is "Reuters" which was founded in 1851. The information of general news, sports, and economic reports is received in London every day and is transmitted over a network of teleprinter lines, satellite links and cable information of general news, sports, and radio circuits. The Company's worldwide communications network is connected to computerized message-handling systems and data banks located around the world. Services include general news for the media and specialized economic news services for business. The Press Association Ltd., the British national news agency, provides a complete service of home news, including general and parliamentary news and all branches of financial, commercial and sports news.

The British press and broadcasting organizations are also served by Associated Press Ltd. and by United Press International, which are British subsidiaries of the United States news agencies.

PRESS IN THE USA

No country in the world has more daily newspapers than the USA. There are almost 2,000 of them, as compared with 180 in Japan, 164 in Argentina and 111 in Britain. The quality of some American papers is extremely high and their view is quoted all over the world. Distinguished dailies like "The Washington Post”or "The New York Times" exert a powerful influence all over the country. However, the "Post" and the "Times" are not national newspapers in the sense that the "Times" is in Britain or "Le Monde" is in France, since each American City has its own newspaper. The best of these present the detailed accounts of national and international news, but many tend to limit themselves to state or city news.

In another sense, however, there is a national press, one that comes from influence and the sharing of news. Some of the largest newspapers are at the same time news-gathering business. They not only print newspapers, they also collect and sale news, news features, and photographs to hundreds of other papers in the US and abroad. Three of the better known of these are "The New York Times", "The Washington Post's", and the "Los Angeles Times" news services.

A lot of people outside the United States think of that slender, serious paper, "The International Herald Tribune", said to be on the daily reading list of many world leaders. "The Herald Tribune", however, is not really an American paper. It is published in Paris (and printed simultaneously in Paris, London, Zurich, Hong Kong, Singapore, the Hague, Marseille, Miami) as an international digest of news, most of it taken from its much larger parents, "The New York Times" and "The Washington Post". Many people in America have never heard of it.

Like the press in most other countries, American newspapers range from the 'sensational', which feature crime, sex and gossip, to the serious, which focus on the factual news and the analysis of world events. But with few exceptions American newspapers try to entertain as well as give information because of competition. A few newspapers support extremist groups on the far right and on the far left, but most daily newspapers attempt to attract middle-of-the-road Americans who are essentially moderate. Many of these papers print columns by well-known journalists of different political and social views, in order to present a balanced picture.

Most daily newspapers are of the 'quality' rather then the 'popular' variety. Among the twenty newspapers with the largest circulation only two or three regularly feature crime, sex and scandals. The paper with the largest circulation, "The Wall Street Journal" is a very serious newspaper indeed.

American newspapers get much of their news from the same sources, which serve about half of the people in the world, that is, the two US news agencies AP (Associated Press) and UPI (United Press International). These two international agencies are the world's largest.

A basic characteristic of the American press is that almost all editors and journalists agree that as much as possible news should be very clearly separated from opinion about news. Following tradition and journalistic ethics, young newspaper editors and reporters are taught that opinion and political viewpoints belong on the editorial and opinion pages. They are aware that the selection of what news is to be printed can cause a bias, of course. But an attempt must be made to keep the two separate. Therefore, when a news story appears with a reporter's name, it means that the editors consider it to be a mixture of fact and opinion.

As in other democratic countries American newspapers can be either responsible or irresponsible, but it is generally accepted that the American press serves its country well and that it has more than once courageously exposed political scandals or crimes, for instance the Watergate. The newspapers drew the attention of the public to the horrors of the Vietnam War.

MASS MEDIA in UKRAINE

The media in Ukraine today is a public structure providing society with up-to-date detailed information concerning different spheres of people's life. The press is generally known as the "fourth estate". In various periods of its existence and depending on the political system, the mass media has always maintained certain relations with those public and political structures, which were actually in control of most spheres in the life of society.

The national radio-and-television network of Ukraine is made up of government-run and non-government radio and TV companies. Ukraine is a member of International Telecommunication Union and an active participant in the Intel-vision network,

The State TV and Radio Company operates 3 channels and includes editorial services specializing in public-political programs, current information, youth and sport programs, and several creative Unions and their channels.

Of late there appeared the increasingly popular non-government TV companies Tet-a-Tet, UTAR, Gravis.

In 1998 total twenty-four-hour time on air was 209,9 hours of TV programs, (including 78,1 hours in Ukrainian language and 318,7 hours of broadcasts (including 87,2 hours in Ukrainian language).

Radio and Television services in Ukraine provide a selection of programs for people of different ages, interest and tastes. Among the programs are comments and discussions on current affairs, interviews with various people, scientific and cultural talks, serious and light music advertisements. Some programs have entertainment value, some of them provide useful topic of conversation, they really bring the world to our living rooms. The programs, especially the television ones, gather big audiences.

Newspapers started being published in Ukraine in the 18-th century (e. g. the "Lviv Courier", in Polish, since 1749) Ukrainian periodicals began with the "Kharkiv Weekly" (1812) and "Kharkiv News" (1817). After WWII Russian language periodicals began to dominate. Later, the Ukrainian proportion increased again. A total of 2659 newspapers were published in Ukraine in 1998 with annual circulation of 3096 min copies, plus 1009 magazines with annual circulation of 57 min copies.

The main national newspapers are "Golos Ukrainy" ("The Voice of Ukraine"), The Courier", "Pravda Ukrainy", "Robitnicha Gazeta", etc. They report national and international news very thoroughly.

Very popular magazines among the readers are the magazines "Bereginya", "Vitchizna", "Viche", "Diloviy Visnik", "Lyudina i Svit" etc. So there are magazines and periodicals for many trades, professions, interests. They can say what they like about anyone and anything: the army, top officials, private individuals, policy and so on.

At present Ukraine numbers over 4,000 editions varying in forms of ownership, genre, type, and periodicity.

Today's Ukrainian periodicals are independent and censorship-free. The state guarantees their economic independence, while taking steps to prevent publisher's and distributors market monopoly.

But in daily practice these freedoms, are implemented the hard way editors and journalists are faced with the problem of keeping their publications alive or to put it simply, the problem of elementary survival. The production expenses sometimes many times surpass the revenues.

Tasks: 1. Evans V., Dooley J. Enerprise (Intermediate) Level 4.

Grammar Book. – London, 2000. – Unit 10.

2. Make the review of an article according to the plan

below:

THE PHRASES COMMONLY USED TO ANALYSE

THE ARTICLES

I was supposed to analyze/to retell . . . the article/following fragment/passage

This article is taken from the newspaper . . . the magazine . . .dated from…

The article is entitled/headlined… The headline of the article is ...

The articles deals with the problem . . .

The key problem of the article is ...

The article treats the wide range of topics . . .

The article is based on ...

The article contains information / details of/ the events. . .

shows the characters

depicts the lacks

reveals the shortcomings

The author/journalist/writer approves the achievements of…

condemns the faults

describes the problems

draws the drawbacks

exposes the evils

analyzes the competition/results

In conclusion . . . To sum up ... Briefly . . .

I'll briefly summarize the main issues . . .

The only / obvious conclusion to be drawn from these facts is that.. .

On the basis of the information mentioned above . . .

On the whole, it seems that. . .

Lessons 36 – Lexico-Grammar Test

Lessons 37,38 – Revision